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An LED has diode like voltage versus current characteristics. Current is approximately an exponential function of voltage, so a small voltage change results in a large change in current. That is why it is important that the power supply gives the right voltage. If the voltage is below the threshold no current will flow and the result is an unlit LED. If the voltage is too high the current will go above the maximum rating, heating and potentially destroying the LED. As the LED heats, its voltage drop decreases further increasing current. Consequently, LEDs should only be connected directly to constant-voltage sources if special care is taken.
Series resistors are a simple way to stabilize the LED current, but wastes energy in the resistor. A constant current regulator is commonly used for high power LEDs. Low drop-out (LDO) constant current regulators also allow the total LED string voltage to be a higher percentage of the power supply voltage, resulting in improved efficiency and reduced power use. Switched mode power supplies are used in some LED flashlights, stabilizing light output over a wide range of battery voltages and increasing the useful life of the batteries. Miniature indicator LEDs are normally driven from low voltage DC via a current limiting resistor. Currents of 2 mA, 10 mA and 20 mA are common. Sub-mA indicators may be made by driving ultra bright LEDs at very low current. Efficiency tends to reduce at low currents. Strings of LEDs are normally operated in series LEDs, with the total LED voltage typically adding up to around two-thirds of the supply voltage, with resistor current control for each string. LEDs, by nature, require direct current (DC) with low voltage, as opposed to the mains electricity from the electrical grid which supplies a high voltage with an alternating current(AC). A capacitor and resistor followed by full-wave rectification is the usual electrical ballast with series-parallel LED clusters. A single series string minimizes dropper losses, while paralleled strings increase reliability. In practice usually three strings or more are used. An advantage of a capacitor is that it can reduce the high line voltage to an appropriate low voltage, without wasting power, with a very simple circuit; a disadvantage is that there may be a high surge of current for a short time when it is first turned on. Multiple LEDs can be connected in series with a single current limiting resistor provided the source voltage is greater than the sum of the individual LED threshold voltages. Parallel operation is also possible but can be more problematic. Parallel LEDs must have closely matched forward voltages (Vf) in order to have equal branch currents and, therefore, equal light output. Variations in the manufacturing process can make it difficult to obtain satisfactory operation when connecting some types of LEDs in parallel. To increase efficiency (or to allow intensity control without the complexity of a DAC), the power may be applied periodically or intermittently; so long as the flicker rate is greater than the human flicker fusion threshold, the LED will appear to be continuously lit.
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